What is Infidelity? A Vignette Study on Norms and Attitudes toward Infidelity.

Infidelity is more than extradyadic intercourse, but it is unclear where infidelity begins and how behaviors are related to each other. We investigated data from a factorial survey experiment implemented in the German Family Panel (pairfam). 9,104 respondents evaluated 26,633 vignettes on unfaithful behaviors including four dimensions: explicit behavior, emotional involvement, infidelity duration, and erotic online contact. Results suggest that item lists may not reveal the full picture of unfaithfulness. While intercourse is judged as unfaithful irrespective of the context, less explicit behaviors such as kisses or hugs were also regarded as infidelity. Nonphysical dimensions contributed to infidelity judgments more strongly when less explicit behaviors were evaluated. Even cases of no physical contact combined with erotic text messages and emotional involvement were evaluated as unfaithful. Women's judgments were stricter than men's, and younger respondents' evaluations were stricter than those from older respondents. No differences were found regarding the gender of the vignette character.

Exploring Links Between Online Infidelity, Mate Poaching Intentions, and the Likelihood of Meeting Offline.

This study examines digitally enabled mate poaching on Ashley Madison, an online dating platform for extradyadic affairs. To explore mate poaching as a potential explanation for what drives users of Ashley Madison to transition their online relationships to offline encounters, we conducted a multinational survey of 1,676 users (88.5 percent male, Mage = 50.98). Participants provided open-ended data about their mate poaching objectives, which ranged from short-term sexual encounters to long-term sexual and emotional affairs and new exclusive relationships. Structural equation modeling showed that participants' attitudes toward online infidelity predicted whether they would consider meeting someone from the website in person. Mate poaching intentions also mediated the effect of attitudes toward online infidelity on the likelihood of meeting another user face to face in the future. The results extend evolutionary theories of mate poaching to the digital dating environment and demonstrate the value of these perspectives for explaining relationship initiation practices on infidelity websites.

Sex and Its Discontents: How Moral Incongruence Connects Same-Sex and Non-Marital Sexual Activity with Unhappiness.

A growing body of research has demonstrated how the link between pornography use and various manifestations of psychological distress and dissatisfaction is explained by moral incongruence-the experience of violating one's deeply held moral values. The predictive power of moral incongruence, however, has yet to be applied to other sexual activities. Drawing on data from available waves of the General Social Surveys (1988-2018: nmen = 6590, nwomen = 7047; 1989-2018: nmen = 3558, nwomen = 4841), this study extended moral incongruence theory by testing whether engaging in same-sex or non-marital sexual activity when one rejects either as morally wrong is associated with a greater likelihood of reporting unhappiness. Analyses demonstrated that American men (but not women) who reported engaging in same-sex sex in the previous year were more likely than other men to say they were unhappy, but only if they viewed homosexuality as "always wrong." Analyses also showed that American women (not men) who reported higher frequencies of non-marital sex in the previous year were more likely than other women to report being unhappy, but only if they viewed non-marital sex as "always wrong." Though nuanced by gender, findings affirmed expectations from moral incongruence research: Sexual behavior per se is not associated with unhappiness, but moral inconsistency or conflict regarding one's sexual behavior is.

Involuntary Childlessness and Marital Infidelity Among Women in Sub-Saharan African Countries: An Assessment of the Moderating Role of Women's Education.

A considerable number of married women in sub-Saharan African countries are childless and may be likely to engage in marital infidelity to avoid social stigma, economic insecurities, and other debilitating experience associated with being involuntarily childless. This study sought to investigate the relationship between involuntary childlessness and marital infidelity and how it may be moderated by women's educational attainment. Data were obtained from 23,847 women in their first union for at least 2 years and participated in the demographic and health surveys of five sub-Saharan African countries comprising Cameroon, Gabon, Lesotho, Liberia, and Sierra Leone. Data were analyzed using multivariate logistic regression, adjusted for socioeconomic, union, and partner characteristics. Involuntarily childless women in Cameroon (AOR: 2.34, 95% CI 1.62-3.39) and Sierra Leone (AOR: 2.22, 95% CI 1.42-3.49) were about two times more likely to engage in marital infidelity compared to non-childless married women. In Gabon, Lesotho, and Liberia, the odds of marital infidelity did not significantly differ between involuntarily childless and non-childless married women. Although involuntarily childless women with secondary or higher education reported higher levels of marital infidelity than non-childless women with a similar level of education, we found no statistical evidence in all the countries that the relationship between involuntary childlessness and marital infidelity was moderated by women's educational attainment. These findings suggest that involuntary childlessness is a critical factor potentially related to marital infidelity and may be an important target for intervention and prevention, particularly in settings with high levels of sexually transmitted infections.

Sexual behaviour and STI testing among Dutch swingers: A cross-sectional internet based survey performed in 2011 and 2018.

BACKGROUND: Swingers, heterosexuals who, as couples, practice mate swapping or group sex with other couples or heterosexual singles, are at risk for sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess changes in sexual behaviour and STI testing behaviour, as well as predictors of STI testing. METHODS: Two cross-sectional studies were performed, using the same internet survey in 2011 and 2018. For trend analysis, sexual behaviour and STI testing behaviour were used. Socio-demographics, swinger characteristics, sexual behaviour, and psycho-social variables were used to assess predictors of STI testing in the past year, using multivariable regression analysis. RESULTS: A total of 1173 participants completed the survey in 2011, and 1005 in 2018. Condom use decreased for vaginal (73% vs. 60%), oral (5% vs. 2%), and anal sex (85% vs. 75%). STI positivity was reported in 23% and 30% of the participants, respectively, although testing for STI was comparable between both years (~65%). The following predictors of STI testing were significant: being female (OR = 1.9, 95%CI: 1.2-2.9), having a high swinging frequency (>12 times a year, OR = 3.7, 95%CI: 1.9-7.3), swinging at home (OR = 1.6, 95%CI: 1.0-2.7), receiving a partner notification (OR = 1.7, 95%CI: 1.2-2.6), considering STI testing important (OR = 4.3, 95%CI: 2.2-8.5), experiencing no pressure from a partner to test (OR = 0.6, 95%CI: 0.3-0.9), partners test for STI regularly (OR = 10.0, 95%CI: 6.2-15.9), perceiving STI testing as an obligation (OR = 2.1, 95%CI: 1.3-3.5), experiencing no barriers such as being afraid of testing (OR = 1.9, 95%CI: 1.2-3.1), limited opening hours (OR = 1.6, 95%CI: 1.0-2.4), and forgetting to plan appointments (OR = 3.0, 95%CI: 2.0-4.6). CONCLUSIONS: Swingers exhibit self-selection for STI testing based on their sexual behaviour. However, STI prevention efforts are still important considering the increasing numbers of reported STIs, the decreased use of condom use, and the one-third of swingers who were not tested in the previous year.

Sexual Transgressions in Couples: The Influence of Dependence and Commitment on their Perception and Handling.

Transgressions occur frequently in romantic relationships, and how they are perceived is influenced by the type of transgression that occurred. By means of an experimental study of 399 participants (75.9% women and 24.1% men) aged 18 to 64 years old (Mage = 31.20, SD = 10.48), we examined the relationship between the type of sexual transgression (infidelity versus coercion), and perceived severity, strategies individuals would use in response to the transgression, and the probability they would leave the relationship, as well as levels of dependence and commitment. Results revealed higher perceived severity (p < .001, η2p = .24) and probability of leaving the relationship (p < .001, η2p = .39) in the infidelity scenario (versus coercion). Meanwhile, women (compared to men) rated sexual transgressions as more severe (p < .001, η2p = .04) and reported a higher probability of leaving the relationship (p < .001, η2p = .03), as well as a higher use of active conflict resolution strategies (exit, p = .048, η2p = .01, and voice, p < .001, η2p = .06) and lower use of passive strategies (loyalty, p < .001, η2p = .08). Finally, high levels of commitment and dependence predicted lower perceived severity (commitment, p < .001, 95% CI [-.72, -.20]; dependence, p < .001, 95% CI [-1.73, -.85]) and lower probability of leaving the relationship (commitment, p = .048, 95% CI [-.55, -.01]; dependence, p < .001, 95% CI [-1.66, -.73]) in coercion (versus infidelity) transgressions. These results highlight the normalization of sexual coercion in romantic relationships, which is not viewed as negatively as infidelity, and that commitment and dependence contribute to minimizing the negative impressions of it.

Infidelity in the Time of COVID-19.

Infidelity occurs in approximately 25% of marriages and is associated with various negative consequences for individuals (e.g., depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress), the couple relationship (e.g., financial loss, increased conflict, and aggression), and the couple's children (e.g., internalizing and externalizing behaviors). Infidelity is also one of the most frequently cited reasons for divorce. The increased stress brought on by the pandemic may be putting couples at an increased risk for experiencing infidelity, and data collected during the pandemic have shown that people across the United States are engaging in behaviors that are associated with a high likelihood of experiencing infidelity. The negative consequences of infidelity are also likely to be exacerbated for couples during the pandemic due to the intersection with the social, emotional, and financial consequences of COVID-19. Furthermore, couples are likely to experience disruptions and delays to the affair recovery process during the pandemic, which can negatively impact their ability to heal. Therefore, recommendations for navigating affair recovery during the pandemic, including adaptations for therapy, are also discussed.

La infidelidad se da en aproximadamente el 25 % de los matrimonios y está asociada con varias consecuencias negativas en las personas (p. ej.: depresión, ansiedad, estrés postraumático), la relación de pareja (p. ej.: pérdida económica, aumento de conflictos y agresiones) y los hijos de la pareja (p. ej.: comportamientos de internalización y de externalización). La infidelidad también es uno de los motivos de divorcio más frecuentes. El aumento del estrés que genera la pandemia puede aumentar el riesgo de las parejas de ser infieles, y los datos recogidos durante la pandemia han demostrado que las personas de los Estados Unidos están teniendo conductas asociadas con una alta probabilidad de ser infieles. Además, durante la pandemia, las consecuencias negativas de la infidelidad tienden a exacerbarse en las parejas debido a la combinación con las consecuencias sociales, emocionales y económicas de la COVID-19. Asimismo, el proceso de recuperación de la aventura amorosa tiende a interrumpirse y retrasarse durante la pandemia, lo cual puede influir negativamente en la capacidad de sanar de las parejas. Por lo tanto, también se dan recomendaciones para orientarse en el proceso de recuperación de la aventura amorosa durante la pandemia, por ejemplo, adaptaciones relacionadas con la terapia.

Sanctification and Cheating Among Emerging Adults.

Cheating-a general term for extradyadic romantic or sexual behavior that violates expectations in a committed romantic relationship-is common and leads to a number of poor outcomes. Religion has historically influenced conceptions of romantic relationships, but societal attitudes about religion are in flux as many seek to retain spirituality even as affiliations with formal religion decrease. The present study evaluated a potential predictor of cheating that is more spiritual than formally religious, the "psychospiritual" concept of relationship sanctification (i.e., the idea that one's relationship itself is sacred). In a sample of college students in committed relationships (N = 716), we found that higher levels of self-reported relationship sanctification were associated with a lower likelihood of both physical and emotional cheating even when accounting for plausible alternate explanations (general religiosity, problematic alcohol use, and trait self-control). This association was mediated via permissive sexual attitudes; specifically, higher levels of sanctification were associated with less permissive sexual attitudes which, in turn, predicted a lower likelihood of emotional and physical cheating.

Patterns of paternal investment predict cross-cultural variation in jealous response.

Long-lasting, romantic partnerships are a universal feature of human societies, but almost as ubiquitous is the risk of instability when one partner strays. Jealous response to the threat of infidelity is well studied, but most empirical work on the topic has focused on a proposed sex difference in the type of jealousy (sexual or emotional) that men and women find most upsetting, rather than on how jealous response varies1,2. This stems in part from the predominance of studies using student samples from industrialized populations, which represent a relatively homogenous group in terms of age, life history stage and social norms3,4. To better understand variation in jealous response, we conducted a 2-part study in 11 populations (1,048 individuals). In line with previous work, we find a robust sex difference in the classic forced-choice jealousy task. However, we also show substantial variation in jealous response across populations. Using parental investment theory, we derived several predictions about what might trigger such variation. We find that greater paternal investment and lower frequency of extramarital sex are associated with more severe jealous response. Thus, partner jealousy appears to be a facultative response, reflective of the variable risks and costs of men's investment across societies.

Extramarital relationships in the Vietnamese migrant community in Laos: reasserting patriarchal ideologies and double standards.

Undocumented migration from Central Vietnam to Laos stretches Vietnamese families and generates marital tensions and social anxieties around the extramarital relationships that migrant husbands establish with vo hau (second wives), an emic term that encompasses mistresses and more stable partners. This paper sheds light on these processes via an ethnographic study on how migration from Central Vietnam to Savannakhet - a town located in Central Laos bordering Thailand - shapes family formation, marital relationships and double standards in gender and sexuality. It argues that husbands and first and second wives manage these issues by preserving family integrity, negotiating extramarital relationships and retreating from marriage. These strategies are shaped by and constitutive of normative double standards that families refer to, reinforce and in some cases transcend to make sense of the marital challenges and disruptions caused by dislocation, translocality and the intrusion of second wives in their marriages. Overall, the study emphasises that families remain committed to a domestic division of labour and to the institutions of marriage and family, albeit with some adjustments. This argument resonates with broader discussions about migration, gender and sexuality in Vietnam.

An Exploratory Study of the Role of Infidelity Typologies in Predicting Attachment Anxiety and Avoidance.

Extradyadic involvement (EDI) is one of the greatest challenges that couples and couples therapists face. Many clinicians and researchers attempt to understand motivations for EDI; however, there is a lack of theory-driven research to support claims of infidelity typologies. The current study explored the relationship between adult attachment dimensions of avoidance and anxiety and the attachment-based typology proposed by Woolley (2010). Results indicate significant differences in attachment anxiety in high anxiety affair types versus low anxiety affair types. Results confirmed significant differences in mean attachment anxiety for participants endorsing multiple affairs.

Extramarital Sex and Marital Dissolution: Does Identity of the Extramarital Partner Matter?

Panel data from married adults (N = 1,853) in the General Social Survey, a probability sample of the adult household population of the United States, were used to evaluate (a) the longitudinal association between extramarital sex and marital dissolution 2 years later, (b) whether probability of marital dissolution differed as a function of the type of relationship people reported having with their extramarital sex partner, and (c) the degree to which these associations were incremental to participants' level of marital satisfaction at baseline. Compared to people who reported not engaging in extramarital sex, those who reported engaging in extramarital sex at baseline were significantly more likely to be separated or divorced 2 years later. Furthermore, the association between having extramarital sex with a close personal friend and marital dissolution was particularly strong. These associations remained statistically significant after adjusting for marital satisfaction. Results suggest that the identity of the extramarital sex partner and the type of relationship a person has with him or her has important implications for probability of marital dissolution above and beyond the contribution of marital satisfaction.

Se utilizaron los datos de panel de adultos casados (N = 1,853) de la Encuesta Social General (General Social Survey), una muestra probabilística de la población de hogares de adultos de los Estados Unidos, para evaluar (a) la asociación longitudinal entre las relaciones sexuales extramatrimoniales y el divorcio dos años después, (b) si la probabilidad de divorcio difirió como una función del tipo de relación que las personas informaron tener con su pareja de relaciones sexuales extramatrimoniales y (c) el grado en el cual estas asociaciones aumentaron según el nivel de satisfacción matrimonial de los participantes al inicio del estudio. En comparación con las personas que informaron no tener relaciones sexuales extramatrimoniales, aquellos que sí informaron tener relaciones extramatrimoniales al comienzo del estudio tuvieron muchas más probabilidades de estar separados o divorciados dos años después. Además, la asociación entre tener relaciones sexuales extramatrimoniales con un amigo íntimo personal y el divorcio fue particularmente fuerte. Estas asociaciones continuaron siendo estadísticamente significativas después de ajustar teniendo en cuenta la satisfacción conyugal. Los resultados sugieren que la identidad de la pareja extramatrimonial y el tipo de relación que una persona tiene con ella repercuten considerablemente en la probabilidad de divorcio más allá del aporte de la satisfacción matrimonial.

Internet Affairs: Partners' Perceptions and Experiences of Internet Infidelity.

This study utilizes an online survey (open and closed questions) to examine how those whose partners' have engaged in online affairs define and experience online infidelity. As with offline affairs, respondents were most likely to define sexual (vs. emotional) behaviors as infidelity (e.g., cybersex, exchanging sexual self-images, sharing sexual fantasies online). However, thematic analysis of the qualitative data identified how online behaviors and spaces are confusing and that infidelity is defined more broadly and fluidly in the online context. This potentially explains why participants saw the Internet as facilitating affairs. Findings are discussed in relation to existing literature and study limitations.

Sexual transgressions in couples: the influence of dependence and commitment on their perception and handling

Transgressions occur frequently in romantic relationships, and how they are perceived is influenced by the type of transgression that occurred. By means of an experimental study of 399 participants (75.9% women and 24.1% men) aged 18 to 64 years old (Mage = 31.20, SD = 10.48), we examined the relationship between the type of sexual transgression (infidelity versus coercion), and perceived severity, strategies individuals would use in response to the transgression, and the probability they would leave the relationship, as well as levels of dependence and commitment. Results revealed higher perceived severity (p < .001, η2p = .24) and probability of leaving the relationship (p < .001, η2p = .39) in the infidelity scenario (versus coercion). Meanwhile, women (compared to men) rated sexual transgressions as more severe (p < .001, η2p = .04) and reported a higher probability of leaving the relationship (p < .001, η2p = .03), as well as a higher use of active conflict resolution strategies (exit, p = .048, η2p = .01, and voice, p < .001, η2p = .06) and lower use of passive strategies (loyalty, p < .001, η2p = .08). Finally, high levels of commitment and dependence predicted lower perceived severity (commitment, p < .001, 95% CI [-.72, -.20]; dependence, p < .001, 95% CI [-1.73, -.85]) and lower probability of leaving the relationship (commitment, p = .048, 95% CI [-.55, -.01]; dependence, p < .001, 95% CI [-1.66, -.73]) in coercion (versus infidelity) transgressions. These results highlight the normalization of sexual coercion in romantic relationships, which is not viewed as negatively as infidelity, and that commitment and dependence contribute to minimizing the negative impressions of it

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Deceptive Affectionate Messages: Mate Retention Deployed Under the Threat of Partner Infidelity.

Deceptive affectionate messages (DAMs) have been proposed to act as relational maintenance techniques and, as such, might be part of a greater repertoire of mate retention behaviors. We analyzed data from 1,993 Mechanical Turk participants to examine the relations between DAMs and mate retention, and whether these relations were mediated by the perceived risk of partner infidelity. In line with predictions, frequency of DAMs positively predicted general mate retention and cost-inflicting mate retention through the perceived risk of partner infidelity. In line with our nondirectional prediction, we also found that frequency of DAMs negatively predicted benefit-provisioning mate retention behaviors. In an exploratory mediation analysis of DAMs on benefit-provisioning mate retention via perceived partner infidelity, we surprisingly found that DAMs negatively predicted benefit-provisioning behavior due to the perceived risk of partner infidelity, suggesting that DAMs-but not benefit-provisioning mate retention-are deployed under the threat of partner infidelity. Overall, these findings suggest that DAMs might belong to a greater repertoire of mate retention (especially cost-inflicting) behaviors to thwart the possibility of partner infidelity.

Intrapersonal and interpersonal facilitators of forgiveness following spousal infidelity: A stress and coping perspective.

OBJECTIVE: Forgiveness includes processes that involve a decision to stop bitterness and thoughts of revenge (i.e., decisional forgiveness), which further motivates the forgiver towards the restoration of positive emotions (i.e., emotional forgiveness). Using stress and coping framework, this study investigated intrapersonal and interpersonal facilitators of decisional and emotional forgiveness in a Chinese marital context. METHOD: Participants were 154 respondents who had experienced or were experiencing spousal infidelity. RESULTS: Solidarity-oriented personality and perceived partner's reconciliation motivation facilitated benign attributions and empathy, then facilitated higher levels of decisional forgiveness, which promoted emotional forgiveness. Strength of marital bond before the infidelity directly predicted higher levels of emotional forgiveness. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings provide evidence for the differentiated decisional and emotional forgiveness processes after spousal infidelity and delineate different coping mechanism that triggers them, thus lending culturally appropriate evidence for clinicians who work with clients facing spousal infidelity.

Male Tolerance to Same-Sex Infidelity: A Cross-Cultural Investigation.

There is accumulating evidence that heterosexual men exhibit tolerance to their partners' same-sex infidelity. The current study examined such tolerance in the Chinese ( N = 949) and the British ( N = 305) cultural contexts. Consistent with the predictions derived from an evolutionary framework, across different cultural settings, men exhibited higher tolerance than women to their partners' same-sex infidelity. In addition, if they had to choose, men were considerably more likely than women to prefer their partners to cheat with an individual of the same than of the opposite sex. Participants were also more tolerant of infidelity involving their short-term than their long-term partners. Moreover, men who preferred same-sex attraction in women were more tolerant to the same-sex infidelity of their female partners than men who did not share these preferences. Finally, men and women who experienced same-sex attractions indicated higher tolerance to infidelity. The implications of these finding for the evolution of same-sex attraction in women were further discussed.

Open Relationship Prevalence, Characteristics, and Correlates in a Nationally Representative Sample of Canadian Adults.

Open relationships are those in which individuals agree to participate in sexual and/or emotional and romantic interactions with more than one partner. Accurate estimates of the prevalence of open relationships, based on representative, unbiased samples, are few, and there are none from outside of the United States. We present findings from a nationally representative sample of 2,003 Canadian adults, administered in 2017 via an online questionnaire. Overall, 2.4% of all participants, and 4.0% of those currently in a relationship, reported currently being in an open relationship. One-fifth of participants reported prior engagement in an open relationship, and 12% reported open as their ideal relationship type. Men, compared with women, were more likely to report prior open relationship engagement and to identify open as their ideal relationship type. Younger participants were more likely both to engage in and to prefer open relationships. Relationship satisfaction did not differ significantly between monogamous and open relationships. Having a match between one's actual relationship type and one's preferred relationship type was associated with greater relationship satisfaction. Findings suggest that, while currently only a small proportion of the population is in an open relationship, interest in open relationships is higher, particularly among younger adults, and open appears to be a viable and important relationship type.

Are Cheaters Sexual Hypocrites? Sexual Hypocrisy, the Self-Serving Bias, and Personality Style.

This article examines moral hypocrisy and the self-serving bias (SSB) in the sexual infidelity context. We found evidence of self-serving attributions that occur between primary relationship partners following sexual betrayals. Specifically, we found that sexual infidelity perpetrators (a) blamed their primary dyadic partners (i.e., victims) for infidelities significantly more than those victims blamed themselves for such infidelities, (b) blamed the surrounding circumstances for infidelities significantly more than their victims did, and (c) rated the emotional impact of infidelities on their victims as significantly less than victims' ratings of such impact. Moreover, we found that participants with prior experience as both sexual infidelity perpetrators and victims displayed "sexual hypocrisy" by judging others more harshly than themselves for sexually unfaithful behavior. Our findings demonstrate that personality variables associated with sexual infidelity (narcissism, sexual narcissism, avoidant attachment, and primary psychopathy) are also relevant to self-serving attributions in the sexual infidelity context.

Expecting and Competing? Jealous Responses Among Pregnant and Nonpregnant Women.

In the current study, we reasoned that when pregnant, women should be especially motivated to protect their reproductive investments as well as their pair bond and be vigilant about intrasexual competitors. To investigate this, pregnant women ( n = 66) and nonpregnant women ( n = 59; age M = 27.41, SD = 3.36) in committed relationships read a jealousy-evoking scenario that was accompanied by a picture of either an attractive or an unattractive woman, after which they indicated their jealousy about such a situation. Moreover, we asked whether a mate's emotional infidelity would evoke more jealousy than his sexual infidelity. The results showed that for pregnant women, both rivals evoked similar amounts of jealousy, whereas nonpregnant women's jealousy was mainly evoked by the attractive rival. Moreover, pregnant women indicated they would be most upset by their partner's emotional infidelity, and especially if they were previously exposed to the attractive rival. Nonpregnant women considered both types of infidelity equally upsetting. These results emphasize the adaptive function of jealousy and extend the literature on the influence of a rival's attractiveness on women's jealousy by focusing on the experiences of pregnant women.